Shareholder Value And Employee Interests †Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Shareholder Value And Employee Interests? Answer: Introduction A company is a distinct legal individual, separate from its owners, known as shareholders or members and have similar rights as a natural person. A company has the ability to sue and be sued, or incur debt. The company is an artificial person having perpetual succession, common seal, limited liability and ability to transfer its capital into small pieces known as shares. The person, who owns the share of a public or private company, is known as a shareholder. The individual holding shares of a corporation are its owners, but the corporation is managed by company officers known as directors. The directors are appointed by the shareholders or other board of directors, and they represent the companys shareholders. The corporate governance is a wide-ranging term, including various policies, directions, guidelines, and procedure followed by companys directors in order to control and manage a company. Effective corporate governance increases the performance of the organisation and balances various interests of stakeholder in the company. The stakeholders of a company include consumers, stockholders, directors, managers, investors, and government. Stakeholders The individual having an interest in a company or the person whose rights get affected by the activities of the company is called stakeholder. There two type of stakeholders: Internet and External. Internal stakeholders are entities who work as internal part of the organisation, including employees, managers, investors, and board of directors. External stakeholders are not part of internal management but still get affected by the performance of the company, including consumers, sellers, shareholders, government, community, and creditors (Golob 2007). The employees are the individuals who hired by the corporation for a specific job. Many companies provide shares to their employees under Employees Stock Ownership Plan or ESOP, in order to increase their role in the organisation. The owners of a corporation appoint the directors as the officers of the company. The officers represent the interest of various stakeholders, supervise the activities of a corporation and make decisions for key matters of the corporation. The managers of a company control the daily operation of an organisation and supervise various aspects of a company, to achieve its goals (Damian 2002). The consumers are the prime focus of a company. A company works to satisfy the needs or supply the products, to its consumers. The consumers are the most valuable asset of the organisation. The supplies provide the raw material for production and provide credit to the corporation. The government imply various taxes on the organisation and protect the public interest, in the corporation. The shareholder owns the shares of a company, they benefit from growth in the value of companys stock (Fletcher 2003). Importance of Shareholders Shareholders invest their capital in the company by buying its share, as such; they are the part-owner of the corporation. Shareholders did not get involved in daily activities of business, instead, they have voting rights to appoint the board of directors. Shareholders have the voting power, which they used to make decisions for the major issues of the company (Farrar 2008). The shareholders are important for the company because they help the company in raising funds for its operations. The shareholders help finance the companys activities and in return, they become the owner of the organisation. The investment contributed by shareholder used in performing activities of the corporation and achieves its objectives (Sharma 2004). The shareholder has both direct and indirect part in the activities of an organisation. The directors or the officers of a company are appointed by the votes of shareholders. The elected directors appoint other key managerial personnel of the company to manage the daily activities of the organisation. The indirect role of the shareholder is related to stock market. The companies require earning profits, in order to attract the investors. There is a constant pressure under companys management to raise their profit. Every public company generally has proper corporate governance guidelines, which require companies to disclose their financial statements in meeting to their owners. The officers and directors have a duty to respond to the shareholders and not to the managers. A public companys board of director provide appropriate and whole disclosure to its owners in their meeting. The owners discuss and analyse the operation and growth of the company and take decision for major issues of the corporation. The control of a company is determined by its shareholders. A higher number of shareholders increase the risk of a hostile takeover in a company, but if the shareholders are satisfied with the management and growth of the company, they can stop such attempts. The shareholders could accept the offer of merger or acquisition with another corporation if they are satisfied with the offer price (Christensen 2010). The shareholders of a company face various risks while investing in a corporation. The value of share changes rapidly on the stock exchange. Various market factors or government policies could adversely affect the stock value of a company in the market. At the time of winding-up, the assets of a company get sold and proceed distributed among different stakeholders, shareholders get paid last (Nguyen 2002). Evidence of Shareholders Primacy Many directors worldwide held the opinion that directors and officers have a legal responsibility towards companys owners and it is their obligation to place their interest above all other stakeholders. But this is just an ideology, not the actual law. In shareholders primacy approach, the companys sole motive is to increase the profits for shareholders. Under this approach, usually, the employees of corporation suffer due to job losses or work pressure (Grossman 2005). According to various market experts, shareholder primacy affects the interest of other stakeholders of the company. The approach Motive of a company is only to gain profit has been changed with the introduction of Corporate Social responsibilities or CSR. Now the motive of the company is not limited to increase profits, but to also increase the quality of life for employees and society. The study conducted upon 4000 company directors in June 2006, for finding the evidence of shareholders primacy. The survey was focused on finding evidence for whether directors prioritise the interest of shareholders in a corporation. The directors were asked to rank the stakeholders according to the priority of their interest. According to the survey, the shareholders interest was the number one priority by the majority of directors, followed by interest of the company and employees. While ranking their priorities, 74 percent of directors rank shareholders interest as their number one priority (Anderson 2007). From the survey, it is clear that directors prioritise the interest of shareholders in the organisation, but the outcome of study does not conclude that pursue of shareholder interest adversely affect the interest of other stakeholders. Shareholders do have priority over other stakeholders, but some directors have ranked employees interest as the priority, making them appear equivalent when compared to other measures. For example, the companys short term profits are not considered as a priority for the shareholders, by the directors. The survey did not conclude that interest of other stakeholders is not being prioritized. Even if the shareholders interest is number one in the ranking, employees interest has ranked higher in these respects. For example, the interest of employees ranked higher in the list with some directors prioritising their interest as number one on the list. Therefore, the survey concluded that the shareholders primacy is a general viewpoint, rather than a specific policy made to maximise the profits for shareholders of a company. The survey concluded that the shareholder primacy is not a legal policy nor it is result of the misguided views of companys directors. The directors understand they are legally allowed to choose any approach, which is beneficial for all stakeholders of the company. The survey suggested that, corporate governance approach for overall achievement of goals has developed in the past decade, and it is the reason for failing of corporate governance, tormenting Australia along with many other countries (Mitchell 2005). Recommendations To protect the interest of various stakeholders and avoiding shareholders primacy, following steps could be taken by the companys directors: The directors should issue an annual statement before the annual general meeting called Report of Significance Stakeholders and Materiality. The report identifies various stakeholders of the corporation and ranks their interest according to companys priorities. The report should address the interest of various stakeholders and contain a page of communication between the company and its stakeholders, regarding their various issues. There are several benefits of adopting this approach, for example, if company prioritise the interest of small-term shareholders, then only those issues are material, who affects the interest of small-term shareholder. If company prioritise the interest of employees, then the dividends will cut before accepting the lay-offs of employees (Eccles 2015). The board of directors should arrange meetings of various stakeholders, to understand their issues and achieving benefits for them. The shareholders can present their issues in the annual general meeting, but it is hard for other stakeholders to present their issues. The meeting of other stakeholders, help in reducing their issues and assist in avoiding shareholder primacy. This approach helps in maintaining a healthy relationship between officers and stakeholders of a corporation. The policies for the diverse audience of an organisation are prepared by analysing the meeting of stakeholders. The board of directors should apply the policies of corporate governance, helping them fulfil the various interests of different stakeholders. These policies require directors to perform certain duties, for the benefit of stakeholders. The corporate social responsibilities of a company require timely and complete disclosure from the board of directors. The disclosure stops directors from prioritising certain stakeholders interests, and avoid the other stakeholders interest (Macey 2003). Conclusion The objective of an organisation is growth and expansion, rather than collecting profits for shareholders. The company has various stakeholders including, but not limited to, shareholders, bondholders, employees, suppliers, managers, and directors. The board of directors should form policies for the benefits of all the stakeholders interest, instead of making policies just for a category of stakeholders. The shareholders are an essential part of the corporation, but shareholder primacy is not the approach for the growth of the organisation. The company should take certain steps to increase the role of corporate governance in the organization. The overall growth of a company is beneficial for all the stakeholders interest. Timely and complete disclosure is a necessary part of a corporate social responsibility and the directors should perform their duties to maintaining transparency in companys operations. References Golob, U. and Bartlett, J.L., 2007. Communicating about corporate social responsibility: A comparative study of CSR reporting in Australia and Slovenia.Public Relations Review,33(1), pp.1-9. Damian, D.E. and Zowghi, D., 2002, September. The impact of stakeholders' geographical distribution on managing requirements in a multi-site organization. InRequirements Engineering, 2002. Proceedings. IEEE Joint International Conference on(pp. 319-328). IEEE. Fletcher, A., Guthrie, J., Steane, P., Roos, G. and Pike, S., 2003. Mapping stakeholder perceptions for a third sector organization.Journal of Intellectual Capital,4(4), pp.505-527. Farrar, J., 2008.Corporate governance: Theories, principles and practice. Oxford University Press. Sharma, V.D., 2004. Board of director characteristics, institutional ownership, and fraud: Evidence from Australia.Auditing: A Journal of Practice Theory,23(2), pp.105-117. Christensen, J., Kent, P. and Stewart, J., 2010. Corporate governance and company performance in Australia.Australian Accounting Review,20(4), pp.372-386. Nguyen, H. and Faff, R., 2002. On the determinants of derivative usage by Australian companies.Australian Journal of Management,27(1), pp.1-24. Grossman, H.A., 2005. Refining the role of the corporation: The impact of corporate social responsibility on shareholder primacy theory.Deakin L. Rev.,10, p.572. Anderson, M.E., Jones, M.A., Marshall, S.D., Mitchell, R. and Ramsay, I., 2007. Evaluating the shareholder primacy theory: Evidence from a survey of Australian directors. Mitchell, R., O'Donnell, A. and Ramsay, I., 2005. Shareholder value and employee interests: intersections between corporate governance, corporate law and labor law.Wis. Int'l LJ,23, p.417. Eccles, R.G., and Youmans, T., 2015. Why Boards Must Look Beyond Shareholders. MIT Sloan Management Review. Retrieved from https://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/why-boards-must-look-beyond-shareholders/ Macey, J.R. and O'hara, M., 2003. The corporate governance of banks.

Groups, Teams, Individual Differences and Diversity

Introduction Control is the principal subject in numerous organizational theories and remains possibly the main topic that shapes each and every individual’s experience in organizations (Baker, 1993, p. 409). Chester (1968, p. 17) highlights the significance of control. He states that the â€Å"key defining aspect of any organization is the workers subordination to a level that their own aspiration do not surpass collective will of the organization†.Advertising We will write a custom article sample on Groups, Teams, Individual Differences and Diversity specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More He adds that for individuals to realize their dreams they must give up a portion of their autonomy in the organizational. Due to this tension, control is commonly challenging in many organizations. As a result, Organizations have been prompted to set up control systems. The organizational control systems have considerably evolved in res ponse to changes in managerial systems from the authoritarian bureaucratic control to consensual control in the shape of independent groups or self-managing teams. The latter is a decentralized and more participative egalitarian system that provides a better alternative to the hierarchical bureaucratic control. This system of control has also evolved from value-based consensus to a system that entails rationalized standard rules (Baker, 1993, p. 410). Edwards (1981) identified three strategies of control that have developed from the contemporary struggle to control individual activities in organizations. The first strategy is the direct, totalitarian and individual control mainly used by business owners or hired managers. This is common in family-owned businesses. The second strategy is the technological control. This strategy emanates from physical technology. The third and the most common strategy is the overbearing control. This strategy is derived from hierarchical relationships within the organization. It is also based on parallel sets of universal rules that reward those who comply and punishes those who do not comply. The concept of self-managing teams At the moment, the most famous organizational transformation to post-bureaucratic structures is the evolution of the conventional hierarchical-based organization to consensually controlled self-managing teams (Baker, 1993, p. 413). Even though this concept has become more popular over the recent past, it is not new. The supporters of this concept describe it as a fundamental change in the conventional managerial and hierarchical structure of an organization (Orsburn et al., 1990; Wellins, William Wilson, 1991). According to Baker (1993, p. 413), the concept of self-managing teams transforms the traditional and authoritarian structure to participatory structure. This means that employees in a self-managing team experiences life in an enormously different way than employees in the previous system.Advertisi ng Looking for article on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Instead of being given orders by those in the chain of command, employees in the self-managing teams must assemble and analyse information, work on it and take joint responsibility for their deeds. Self-managing teams are usually organized in groups of 10 to 15 individuals. The management’s responsibility is to present value-based goals/vision for employees to work towards. As a result, self-managing team members are guided by these goals to direct their individual tasks and link with other departments within the organization (Baker, 1993, p. 413). Self-managing teams are in charge of well-articulated tasks in different forms of organizations. The members are well trained to carry out any job function and have considerable power to make key decisions required to execute a given task. In addition to carrying out their individual tasks, members can also set their work plan, make orders and link with other groups (Baker, 1993, p. 414). Besides minimizing bureaucracy and saving costs by eliminating low-level managers, self-managing teams also enhance workers motivation, productivity and devotion (Wellins, William Wilson, 1991, p. 22). The disparity between self-managing teams and other approaches According to Baker (1993, p. 413), employees in self-managing teams are not directly controlled by top management or supervisor, but only uses the value-based corporate vision provided by the top management to guide their daily operations. On the other hand, the other approaches are based on a system of rules and measures that restricts employees’ functions and decision-making. In other words, these approaches do not regard individuals involved. The structures in the other approaches are so rigid and require all decisions to be approved by the top hierarchy, thus impede employees’ ability to meet consumer’s de mands promptly. Baker (1993, p. 410) explains how employees are entrapped in an â€Å"iron cage† in bureaucratic control since control is less vivid or personal. This is because employees are more deep-rooted in the social relations. He adds that control in the bureaucratic system is less personal since power rests entirely with the system, leaving employees with what he describes as â€Å"experts without heart† or sensualist without spirit†. In the earlier bureaucratic systems, workers were openly controlled, ordered, directed and fired at will. However, the current bureaucratic control employs indirect rules. At the moment, workers are controlled by shaping their knowledge of what is right or wrong. They have to seek support for decisions they make from the top hierarchy. This is well articulated in the company rules. In other words, control is hidden in the company rules and hierarchy (Baker, 1993, p. 411). The impact of the new concept on employees As already been mentioned, the current democratic system of control provides a more workable alternative to other approaches. This new concept is more effective than the bureaucratic control. Self-managing teams delegates authority to the employees, which in turn enhances the effectiveness of the control systems.Advertising We will write a custom article sample on Groups, Teams, Individual Differences and Diversity specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, Baker (1993, p. 434) argues that this new concept cannot realise its full potential unless the diverse interests and functions of members are integrated in an organized manner. The system must be based on shared values that are enforced by members. Therefore, the self-managing teams are more manifested through interaction with members. Members are given authority to make decisions as long as they are in-line with the organization’s values and goals. This creates a favourable worki ng environment for employees, thus increases their commitment, loyalty and their willingness to put more effort on behalf of the organization. In addition, members stick to the values of the organization and have desire to remain in the organization (Baker, 1993, p. 435). The self-managing teams also eliminate the low-level managers by making employees their own bosses. Contrary to many people’s expectations, self-managing teams do not free members from the â€Å"iron cage† of control as it is more manifested in each and every member of the organization. Instead, it draws the â€Å"iron cage† tighter and restraints members more powerfully. In other words, employees do not have to malinger when the boss is not around since the whole team is keeping an eye on each other. Members of the whole team are responsible for each other. In summary, this is the best control system. However, it has a few challenges, for instance, organizing an effective team. In addition, me mbers usually find it difficult to embrace new responsibility. References Baker, J. R. 1993, ‘Tightening the Iron Cage: Concertive Control in Self-Managing Teams’, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 38, pp. 408-437. Chester, B. 1968, The function of the Executive, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Edwards, R. C. 1981, The social relations of production at the point of production, Foresman: Glenview, IL. Orsburn, J. D., Moran, L., Musselwhite, E., Zenger, J. H. 1990, Self-Directed Work Teams: The New American Challenge, Irwin: Homewood, IL.Advertising Looking for article on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Wellins, R. S., William, B., Wilson, J. M. 1991, Empowered Teams: Creating Self-Directed Work Groups that Improve Quality, Productivity, and Participation, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. This article on Groups, Teams, Individual Differences and Diversity was written and submitted by user Matilda Flores to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Sir Winston Churchill essays

Sir Winston Churchill essays Churchill, Sir Winston Leonard Spencer, British politician and prime minister of the united kingdom, widely regarded as the greatest British leader of the 20th century. Churchill is celebrated for his leadership during WW2 . His courage, decisiveness, political experience, and vitality gave him what it took to lead his country through one of the most desperate struggles of British history. Winstons public life extended from the reign of queen Victoria to the cold war. During his long political career , Churchill held every office possible except for foreign minister .Churchill was also known for the many books he published about British politics and history. his command for the English language not only made him a great orator but also earned him a noble prize for literature in 1953. Winston Churchill was born at Blenheim palace, which was his familys ancestral seat in Oxfordshire , on November 30, 1874. He was the oldest son of his father, Lord Henry Randolf Henry Spencer Churchill, who was a British statesman who became a leader of the house of commons. Because of his familys status Churchill attended school at Harrow school, where he studied the classics. In school he was known for his good memory, but also his stubbornness .Since he was a chile Churchill was fascinated with soldiers and warfare, he often played with a set of lead soldiers in his family nursery, and after harrow he graduated from the royal military college with honors. Early in 1895 his father died, Churchill who was only 20 years old was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the 4th queens own hussars, a regiment of the British army . Churchills first military assignment was to go to Cuba for a British newspaper to follow a rebellion. On his 21st birthday he was in the Cuban jungle and came under fire for the first time, escaping without injury. Churchill continued to serve in th ...

Juvenile Offenders with Life Sentences Research Paper

Juvenile Offenders with Life Sentences - Research Paper Example Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that to take a life through a forced confinement for the period of that life is as cruel and unusual for someone who cannot form mature intent as it is to forfeit that life. A proposed study of the effects of this sentence on these offenders will allow for a better understanding of the effects of the imposed consequence of their criminal actions. A review of secondary research provides overwhelming evidence that a moratorium on life sentences without parole is reasonable, Constitutional, and globally supported. As well, the effects on both the offender and on the community create support for this end to life without parole for these offenders. The proposed study would allow for offenders who have experienced adult prisons with no hope for release to come forward and share their stories with a researcher so that a better understanding of the real-life consequences can be studied and analyzed. The study of children who have been given life sentences within the United States brings to light a great need for further work to be done to realize the full impact of this practice. There is a glaring gap in the literature concerning juvenile delinquency about the effects of lifelong incarceration on children. The psychological differences between that of an adolescent mind and that of a mature adult have been disregarded where these instances are concerned and heinous consequences have been levied against children due to mandatory minimums and blind justice laws. Because of this neglect, penal institutions are ill-equipped to handle the special needs of an adolescent within the adult prison system, depriving these children of proper care and resources that are necessary for growth. In creating a study that looks at the experiences of children who have been sentenced to life without parole, the support for the abolition of this practice can be established through real-life experiences. On the other hand, the experiences might also show that life in an adult prison for these offenders is no crueler than it is for those who as adults are sentenced to life without parole. The secondary research supports the abolishment of this practice, however, and it is hoped that further study of the situation from an experiential point of view will support the hypothesis. In discovering the real-life stories of these children who grow into adulthood behind bars, researchers can better determine how to recommend change and growth within the juvenile justice system.

Ethical appraisal of a science research proposal Essay

Ethical appraisal of a science research proposal - Essay Example Blood samples will be collected from the volunteers for lymphocyte preparation and DNA extraction purposes. By collecting blood samples from volunteers who are receiving methadone replacement therapy, this study aims to determine the role of opioid receptors (i.e. ?, ? and ? ) that contributes to the mechanism of tolerance, drug resistance, and susceptibility to the drug. This study will benefit forensic toxicologists in enabling them offer a more meaningful interpretation of a blood drug concentration found in heroin abuse cases. This study will test the following hypothesis: (1) there is phenotypic inter-individual variation in the ability of UK population to maintain tolerance to heroin; (2) that this variation is a consequence of genetic polymorphism in opioid receptors; and (3) that individuals with specific genotypes have heightened sensitivity to modifying effects of methadone replacement therapy. ... To assess the contribution of methadone replacement in the patterns of opioid receptor expression, the researcher will re-measure the key receptor levels after the 6th week of methadone replacement period. Aside from identifying volunteers with responsive receptor to methadone replacement therapy, this approach will enable the researcher minimize the potential confounding effect of habitual lifestyle on phenotypically â€Å"high† and â€Å"low† expressers. Individuals with high or low levels of receptors and those with responsive phenotype will be classified under subgroups. Eventually, lymphocytes taken from the volunteers will be transformed using Epstein Barr Virus (EBV) to produce immortalized cell lines which will be use as a model system in studying the drug gene interactions that could modulate opiate receptor levels. Identification, Discussion of Ethical Issues, and Control of Ethical Issues Respect for Human Rights Among the common ethical issues that may happe n when conducting a scientific-based research study includes matters that are related to the well-being of another person. As a common rule when conducting the actual research study, the researcher should respect the rights of another person by allowing them to make their own decision whether or not to participate in this study (Iltis, 2006, p. 126; Gregory, 2003, p. 41). In line with this, Israel and Hay (2006, p. 96) explained that harm caused by research activities is often â€Å"more likely to involve psychological distress, discomfort, social disadvantage, invasion of privacy or infringement of rights more than physical injury†. Iltis (2006, p. 139) stated that â€Å"disrespect occurs when researchers violate

The Lifecycle Of Pidgins And Creoles English Language Essay

The Lifecycle Of Pidgins And Creoles English Language Essay In reference to Hall, normal languages do not have life cycles, however, defining normal can be quite a complex and challenging task, especially when correctly categorising what language is normal. Hall attempts to define normal language as follows: One handed down from generation to generation through transference to children who learn it as their first language. (Quoted in Romaine, 1988, p 115) Pidgins tend to differ from this particular definition as in contrast to normal languages a pidgin usually comes into existence for a specific reason, lasts just as long as the situation that called in into being and then quickly goes out of use (Hall, p 115). A pidgin has the potential to gain a longer lifespan by evolving into a native language or becoming creolized and therefore acquiring the status of a normal language. When studying pidgins and creoles in detail, it rapidly becomes apparent that it is much more testing to study pidgins and creoles as two separate processes, rather than as two aspects of the same linguistic process, just at different stages. It has proven to be quite problematic for many researchers to specify accurately when a pidgin becomes a fully developed creole with a significant community of nativized speakers; however academics have developed a fairly precise continuum which states that a pidgin must traditionally experience four phases of development before winning the status of a creole. Throughout each phase, the language becomes much more complex and sophisticated, indicating features of a normal language. The developmental continuum is as follows: Jargon Stable Pidgin Expanded Pidgin Creole The first phase of the developmental continuum is the Jargon stage or prepidgin stage where vocabulary is extremely limited. The Jargon phase is the very beginning of the life cycle, where the purpose of the makeshift language is to merely form communication between two incomprehensible languages and is used in very limited domains, commonly trade and labour. Robertson (1948, Quoted in Romaine, 1988, p 118) however, suggests the idea that there is a pre-jargon stage where makeshift languages are instantly constructed on the spot out of a combination of gestures and speech. The example given to demonstrate this theory is the arrival of a European trade ship in Tahiti in 1767; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦we made all the friendly signs that we could think of, and showed them several trinkets in order to get some of them on-boardà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦they paddled all round the ship and made signs of friendship to us by holding up Branches of Plantain trees, and making a long speech of near fifteen minutesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦but non of us could understand themà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦we made signs to them, to bring of Hogs, Fowls and fruit and showed them some coarse cloth, Knives sheers Beeds Ribons etc., and made them understand that we was willing to barter with them. (Robertson, 1948 as quoted in Romaine, 1988, p 118) The jargon phase itself is not a huge progression from the pre-jargon stage suggested by Robertson as sentences are only minimal; one or two words in length at maximum. Lexicon is exceptionally small and the sound system is very basic (Romaine, p 117). Labov (1970/1977) defines this phase as an ingenious and original mode of expression which combines knowledge of the native vernacular with an imperfect grasp of the other languages in the new environment (Labov, as quoted in Romaine, 1988, p 118-119). There is evidence of considerable variation throughout the jargon phase as it is a newly constructed pidgin with no set linguistic rules, often resulting in confusion and a near incomprehensible language. For example, instances have shown how different syntactical structures can be used to the lexical items employed. The illustration given by Romaine is one of a Japanese woman who travelled to Hawaii, speaking her own form of expression as quite an isolated individual, never acquiring th e Hawaii Pidgin English. The language which she chose to adopt under these circumstances consisted of a primarily Japanese syntax with both Japanese and English lexical items. Furthermore, in the jargon stage, there is what Silverstein (1972) (quoted by Romaine, 1988:120) labelled a double illusion a contact language relatable to both parties native languages. The example illustrated by Silverstein is as follows; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦there is a particular jargon between the French and the Indians, which is neither French nor Indian, and nevertheless when the French use it, they think they are speaking Indian, and the Indians in taking it up think they are speaking good French. (Jeune, 1633) This jargon is described by Silverstein as one with an unsystematic nature and lack[s] independent grammatical norms, (Silverstein, as quoted by Romaine, 1988:120) though other scholars disagreed with this somewhat negative interpretation and insisted that it was a vital trade component. The following period of the pidgin-creole lifecycle is the Stable Pidgin phase, where language is used not only for communication but for self-expression also. There is a stronger sense of linguistic complexity at this stage as both simple and complex sentences are applied. The most suitable example of a pidgin that falls under this category is Russenorsk (Russo-Norwegian); a trade pidgin which was used in Northern Norway by Russian merchants and Norwegian fisherman during the Pomor trade. (Romaine, 1988:124) Russenorsk is unique when compared against other pidgin languages, considering its lifespan. Generally speaking, a pidgin lasts as long as its required and then becomes obsolete. The alternative possibility is for the pidgin to become creolized and acquire a community of native speakers. However, Russenorsk is an exceptional instance and unlike normal pidgins has existed for such a long period of time without creolizing. The time between the first attested occurrence of the lang uage (in a lawsuit in 1785) until its extinction at the time of the First World War and the Russian revolution is 141 years (Romaine, p 125). The most obvious cause for this anomaly is the fact that it was merely used as a seasonal trade language in the summer months; it never became a fully-functioning native language, nor did it fall out of use (until WW1). A stable pidgins lexicon remains fairly small in size; Russenorsks vocabulary consisted of a total of approximately 390 words, however, half of which only occurred once, resulting in a key vocabulary of about 150-200 words. It was a very concise language, showing no signs of any inflections or categories such as gender, number or tense. Also absent is the verb to have. As a result of this and the fact that terminology remarkably originated from a wide variety of languages such as Dutch, German, French, Swedish and Lappish as well as Russian and Norwegian, there was evidence of many doublets or parallel forms. For example; good/well could be spoken as bra, good, dobra, dobro or korosjo further adding confusion (Fox, 1973, as quoted by Romaine, 1988:126-7). Fascinatingly, Slobin (1977, as quoted by Romaine, p 129) uses Russenorsk as a prime example of a language extremely close to universal grammar. Universal grammar is a linguistic concept proposed by Chomsky that suggests the idea that the capability to learn and understand grammar can happen without being taught that it is a cognitive process that happens naturally. According to Bickertons language bioprogram theory (1996), the principle of Universal Grammar is linked to pidgin and creole languages because specific characteristics are common in all different languages, allowing foreign speakers of language to interact and form a new language (pidgin). One of the characteristics, given by example by Bickerton, is the way in which an interrogative sentence can be transformed into a declarative sentence through purely altering intonation. Like the jargon phase, there is still a degree of variation in the stable pidgin stage, especially in pronunciation, according to Broch and Jahr (1984, quoted by Romaine, p 129) who said that pronunciation varied depending on the language and dialect background of individual speakers. The penultimate stage of the pidgin-creole lifecycle is the Expanded Pidgin phase. Here, grammar becomes much more complex and speech tempo is increased. Language and discourse becomes evidently much more cohesive and consistent. It is used not only as a simple means of communication for trade purposes, but in everyday life for self-expression and literature. (Romaine 1988:138) Sankoff (1977, as quoted by Romaine, p 139) was interested in the comparison between normal languages and pidgins when investigating speech tempo. Her data showed that pidgins are vocalized at a slower rate than normal languages, largely due to the fact that pidgins are used merely as a second language to users and not as a first. It is only when a speaker becomes fluent in the language, does the tempo increase. Data that explores features of Tok Pisin (perhaps one of the most well-known expanded pidgins) shows that one of the features that separate a childs speech from adults is phonology. For instance, a child might condense syllables. The example given by Sankoff and Laberge (1973) is the phrase Mi go long haus (pronounced using four syllables by adults). However, they noticed that in comparison, a child is more likely to say Mi go l:aus, using only three syllable by shifting stress patterns. The concluding stage of the life-cycle is when the pidgin becomes creolized and takes on the identity of its dominant parent. However, according to Muhlhausler (1980), creolization does not necessarily have to take place at the final stage of the life-cycle, but can occur at any stage in the developmental continuum from jargon to expanded pidgin (as quoted by Romaine, p 154). He suggests that there are three possible varieties of creolization: Type 1: Jargon Creole Type 2: Jargon Stabilized pidgin Creole Type 3: Jargon Stabilized pidgin Expanded pidgin Creole Most known instances fall under Type 3 and are wide-spread creoles that are still fully-functioning and in use today such as Tok Pisin (spoken largely in Papua New Guinea as an official language and the most broadly used in that country) and West African Pidgin English. Some known instances fall under Type 2, however is much less common. Examples of Type 2 creoles include North Australian creoles and Torres Strait creoles (Romaine, p. 155). Cases of Type 1 creoles are currently non-existent. In contrast, Bickerton proposes an alternate view and suggests that creolization after stabilization of a pidgin is rare and in the majority of circumstances, pidgins have creolized whilst still being highly unstable in the early stages of development. So far, we have discussed the idea that creoles are formed from a pidgin which stabilizes. However, Bickerton goes even further to controversially suggest that there is no such link between pidgin and creole and that the development of a creole has more to do with the innate devices of a first language acquisition than with a gradual evolution from a pidgin. For example; Tok Pisin the lingua franca of Papua New Guinea had developed whilst co-existing alongside another language, therefore integrating many of its characteristics. However, what Bickerton labels the classic creole situation (where creole-speakers have been torn from their native cultures) differs from Tok Pisin as the majority of speakers could still rely on another langu age. (Bickerton, 1981, as quoted by Singh, 2000:52-53) DeCamp (1971) focuses his research on the fate of a creole upon reaching the end of the creole continuum. This particular area is not as thoroughly researched as earlier stages; however, DeCamp makes some attempt at outlining the potential routes a creole may take. These are: May well continue its status as a creole and remain unaffected, much like the Haitian Creole seems to have done. It may become obsolete. It may take on the identity of its dominant parent as a normal language. It may progressively combine with the national language as is happening in Jamaica (decreolization). (DeCamp, 1971, as quoted by Romaine, p 157). The post-creole continuum is as follows: Basilect Mesolect Acrolect The creole is what is meant by basilect, the national corresponding language is what is meant by acrolect and any transitional varieties in-between is what is referred to as the mesolect (Romaine, p 158). To go back to the question of the entire paper, is there a point at which a creole stops being a creole and takes on the identity of its dominant parent? We must look at the work of ODonnell and Todd (1980, as quoted by Romaine, p158), who points out that at the end of the continuum, we are not dealing with two distinct systems, but an unbroken spectrum between the pidgin or creole on the one hand, and the prestigious standard on the other. There is no point of the continuum where we find a sharp break between the varieties. Word Count: 2,120

Satanism

Satanism may signify an organized belief system or religion such as the Church of Satan. It may be seen just as a vague and dramatized concept of extreme insurgence against Western norms and conventions such as the so-called â€Å"Satanism† exhibited by some rock musicians. It may be a mythological sign of medieval religious thinking that still lingers in contemporary times. It may also be a deviant practice used to daunt and control others through ritual abuse (Francis King, 1989b). If Satanism is linked with ritual abuse, one can also say with assurance that not all ritual abuse is Satanic. Many of these abusive occurrences have been present in societies or under conditions where Satan is not a renowned spiritual or demonic entity. In earlier times, it was not uncommon for Western scholars and travelers to sometimes attribute the influence of Satan to primitive religious practices, which to them appeared to be idolatrous or violent. Even now, one occasionally hears the concept that if something is not Christian, it is the effect of Satan's power or seductiveness. The predecessors of Satanism can be found in ancient religions in which gods were worshipped, not because of their intrinsic goodness, but as of their perceived power. For example, the ancient Greek and Roman gods were such an amoral grouping of deities. Few showed many venerable character traits. These gods were often represented with all the foibles and veniality of mere mortals. Many of the cults dedicated to such gods and goddesses allegedly involved traumatizing rituals (e. g. , the mystery cults). On the other hand, some religions particularly worshipped and supplicated obviously evil deities. In other cases, what appears to be the adoration of an â€Å"evil deity† may simply symbolize the worship of a spiritual entity that no longer enjoys privileged status? There are examples in history in which a culture's demons were in fact past divinities, no longer revered, and sometimes given new and less striking roles. Such revolutions amongst the gods sometimes resulted from conquests, whereupon the new gods of the conquerors take the place formerly held by the gods of the conquered. In other instances, evil can be revered or worshipped outright. In cultures in which Christianity is established one might presume that the worship of evil would involve some devotion to Lucifer or Satan, the primary names given to the Euro-American spiritual depiction of evil. To many traditional Christians, Satan and Lucifer are equal but different names for the same demon. However, numerous theologians make the peculiarity that Lucifer is the name of Satan before his fall. The origins of Satanism are positively as obscure as any other occult belief system. One can never be specifically certain when such practices started. Yet, some of the historical accounts of Satanism in Europe may explain some of the evolution of thinking about Satanism. The history of Satanism can be traced to a variety of possible sources: (1) European witchcraft, sorcery, and shamanism, (2) Gnostic-derived religions (e. . , the Cathari) which viewed the established Church as an tyrannical adversary, (3) the general traditions of Western occultism (which are often seen as encircling a â€Å"dark† or â€Å"left-handed path†) and (4) what Francis King calls â€Å"the bad divinity of a minority of Roman Catholic priests† (Francis King , 1989b, p. 219 ). Though, whe n Satan was invented, he was found everywhere. For instance, Satan was attached to Adam and Eve as a sibling rivalry between Satan and the younger creatures of God. This combination of human and celestial opponents of God lastly culminated in the formative stages of the Antichrist legend, which speaks of the human embodiment of Satan (McGinn 1994: 10, 22-25; Pagels 1995: 43, 49; Russell 1977: 188-89). While the orthodox text shared some ideas of the dualistic conflict, particularly in Ezra's formulations, Satan obtained a key role in the conventional worldview only gradually, as an influence of the popular apocalyptic eschatology and a means in struggles for power (political or religious) between human beings ( McGinn 1994: 26). According to Elaine Pagels, Satan never shows in the Hebrew Bible as the leader of an evil empire, as a leader of antagonistic spirits who make war on God and humankind. As he first appears, Satan is not essentially evil. In the Book of Numbers and in Job he is one of God's obedient servants, a messenger or angel. The Satan describes an adversarial role, not a particular character. The Satan was any one of the angels sent by God for the explicit purpose of blocking or obstructing human activity; the root Satan means â€Å"one who opposes, obstructs, or acts as adversary†; the Greek term diabolos means â€Å"one who throws somewhat across one's path. So if the path is bad, an obstruction is good: Satan may simply have been sent by the Lord to protect a person from worse harm (Pagels 1995: 39-40, based, e. g. , on Numbers 22: 23-25). Job's Satan takes a more adversarial role; Satan’s special role in the blissful court is that of a kind of roving intelligence agent, like those whom numerous Jews of the time would have known and disliked from the king of Persia's complex system of secret police and intelligence officers. These agents roamed the realm looking for signs of infidelity amongst the people. God boasts to Satan concerning one of his most loyal subjects; Satan then challenges the Lord to put Job to the test. Job withstands the tests, and the Lord restores the affluences of Job giving him twice as much as he had before (Pagels 1995: 41, based on Job 2: 3, 42: 10). Around the time Job was written c. 550 B. C. E. , other biblical writers invoked Satan to account for sharing out within Israel. One court historian slips Satan into an account regarding the origin of census taking, which King David introduced into Israel c. 1000 B. C. E. or the point of instituting taxation, which aroused fervent and immediate opposition. Aim on condemning David's action without condemning the king openly, the author of 1 Chronicles suggests that a supernatural adversary within the divine court had managed to penetrate the royal house and led the king himself into sin: â€Å"Satan stood up against Israel and incited David to number the people† ( Pagels 1995: 42-43, based on 1 Chron. 21:1) . Most societies have a variety of demons, spirits, or gods, which are morally ambivalent that is to say, the gods can be kind or unkind to humankind. One might argue that this amoral or dimoral polytheism fits the human experience of the universe well: we see things happening mysteriously, without reason, for good or ill, and call it fate, chance, or an â€Å"act of God. † Few religions have one figure particularly symbolizing evil, although Buddha's tempter Mara comes close. No religion has a single individual personifying evil except those of the Jewish-Christian-Muslim (and â€Å"Zoroastrian†) tradition, which have Satan or the Devil. The problem of evil faces every worldview, but none so expressively as great monotheistic religions. Theologically the problem is just stated. God is all-powerful and all-good. But an all-powerful, all-good God would not permit evil in the cosmos he creates. Therefore evil cannot exist. But we view that evil exists. We are therefore forced to refuse the existence of God (at least as great monotheistic religions define it) or meet the criteria of our definition. If we choose the latter, we can save God's pure goodness by restraining his omnipotence, or else save his power by qualifying his goodness. This is a sharp theological choice; few theologians choose to face it that overtly. To avoid this choice, a variety of strategies have been working over the millennia. One solution, however unacceptable philosophically, is to resort to the notion of a spiritual power aggressive to God, such as Satan. The Old Testament has comparatively few references to Satan as a personality. Most Hebrew thought before the second century B. C. E. established destruction and suffering as originating in God's inscrutable will. But some Old Testament passages lent themselves to an interpretation that unexplained spiritual powers, subordinate to a God, often did disparaging things. In some passages — most radically in the Book of Job — this power is portrayed as having a self-governing, malevolent existence. The idea of the Devil, very fuzzy in the Old Testament, becomes clear and pointed in the era from the second century B. C. E. to the second century C. E. One reason is the power of Iranian dualism. The ancient Iranian religion of Mazdaism (sometimes called Zoroastrianism) had its origins in the teachings of Zarathushtra, a prophet whose dates are unknown. It is a dualist religion, elucidating evil by positing a frequent cosmic warfare between the God of Light and the God of Darkness. Mazdaism had some influence in Babylonia, where Hebrew in Exile was liberated by Iranian Shah Cyrus. A propensity toward dualism seems also to have grown indigenously amongst Jews, as they developed a darker view of the world throughout the times they were invaded, enslaved, and persecuted by a diversity of conquerors — Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and finally Romans. The Jews reacted to this anguish partly by blaming it on their own sins (a stance of the great prophets), but partially by blaming exterior forces. The Devil or his deputies were the influential spirits backing evil Gentiles against the Chosen People. Some Jewish sects, such as the Essenes, conceived (like the Mazdaists) of a vast extraterrestrial warfare between the Lord of Light and the Prince of Darkness, a warfare in which each nation and each person was called to stand on one side or the other. For Jewish apocalyptic, the cosmic struggle was coming to its end; there would be one last, vast war between sons of dusk and sons of light, and then the good God would triumph everlastingly. In the context of this profoundly dualistic Jewish thought, Christianity came into being. Ideas similar to those of apocalyptic writers emerge in the Christian Gospels, notably the Gospel of John, with its images of light against darkness, in miracle stories of Jesus' capability to cast out and defeat demons and their leader the Devil, and in the Book of Revelation (The Apocalypse). However, after the obliteration of Jerusalem by Romans in 70 C. E. , and the diaspora of the Jews, Pharisees were left as the surviving leading Jewish group. Their custom downplayed Satan's power so much that he infrequently appears in works of the rabbis, though he does retain a presence in Jewish folklore. Although Judaism downplayed Satan's power, Messianic trends that faded in Judaism after 70 C. E. remained strong in Christianity. For Christianity, Jesus was the Messiah. In Christian thought, God is good. Opposed by the Devil, he sends Jesus his Messiah to obliterate the Devil's power. Unlike many Jewish sects, such as the Zealots, Christians supposed that the Messiah was not a military victory over Satan and gentile nations, but to a certain extent the Suffering Servant, who took upon himself all sins of the people and, in dying for them, broke Satan's power. Almost all early Christian writers granted Satan great power all through the cosmos and also in the life of each human. Christ and Satan vie for each soul, and each person should choose between them. Like Judaism, Christianity is a monotheistic religion. But by using the Devil to explicate the existence of evil, some early Christian groups, such as Gnostic sects of the first two centuries C. E. , pulled powerfully in the way of dualism. For them, Satan was an anti-God of enormous power. This power was to be fought, banished, and struggled against. But as it was so vast, Satan's power could also be influenced, harnessed to one's own will, even, in extreme cases, worshipped. There was no planned Satanism in early Christianity, but some Gnostic sects seem to have verged on it by working orgiastic rites. In the l5th-century, French baron and onetime marshal of France, Gilles de Rais, was found to have affianced in numerous mortal and sadistic acts, some of which were alleged to be associated with strange rituals in which he was assisted by Francesco Prelatti, a Florentine priest and occultist. Gilles de Rais was noted to be a man whose temperament and personality seemed to be extremely erratic at different times. Sometimes noted for his kindness, he was notable for his bravery in his military assistance of Joan of Arc. However, there was a great deal of dependable testimony provided by witnesses as well as material substantiation pointing to his guilt. According to Francis King, Satanism was adequately prevalent in 16th- and l7th-century France that its presence was noted by the police: It is difficult to know how widespread such Satanist activities were among the nonmonastic clergy of the middle Ages, but they seem to have become common in the 16th and17th centuries. Exactly how common, no one knows, but if the rest of Catholic Europe was anything like the ecclesiastical underworld of Paris at that time, then they were very common indeed. For in France Satanism had attained the status of big business, its practitioners forming a kind of occult Mafia, a noisome octopus with tentacles which reached into almost every segment of Parisian society and which was uncovered by Nicolas de la Reynie, the Police Commissioner of Paris. (Francis King, 1989b, pp. 219 – 220) The books of Church of Satan founder Anton LaVey (1969) were actually strongly influenced by this â€Å"occult tradition. † (LaVey also popularized the â€Å"satanic pentagram,† the five-pointed star with one point downward and the head of a goat overlaid. There is a temptation to dismiss antisatanists' claims as illusive; as sociologist Marcello Truzzi says, â€Å"Satanists are better scapegoats than Jews, because they don't exist (in Lyons, 1988:179). Though the vast conspiracy criticized by the antisatanist campaign may be exaggerated, Satanists do exist; there are members of controlled Satanist churches in our society. These Satanist groups are significant to the antisatanist movement: they provide a â€Å"kernel of truth† that antisatanists can expose. Groups such as Anton LaVey's Church of Satan â€Å"prove† that the satanic threat exists. The Church of Satan is not large; estimates range from 2000 to 5000 active members (Melton 1986:77; Lyons 1988:115). Still, the publicity showered on LaVey since he established his San Francisco church in 1966 has made him and his group a part of American popular culture. Almost everyone knows about LaVey's church, even though it is quite small. What the Church lacks in size it has made up for in attention paid to it as well as its activities. Anton LaVey, a bright character with a flair for the dramatic, gained substantial publicity by performing satanic weddings of famous people, satanic baptisms of children, and satanic last rights for a sailor member who died — all intentionally staged as media events. LaVey sought celebrities as members, and for a time claimed such stars as Sammy Davis, Jr. and Jayne Mansfield as dynamic participants, gaining national attention as a result (Lyons 1988). There is substantial debate about what the Church of Satan stands for, and what its members believe. Some analysts treat the Church as a spoof, intentionally designed to upset Christians. Others take it more critically, and look to LaVey's writings, such as his The Satanic Bible (LaVey 1969), to understand his philosophy. The church actively rejects spirituality and mysticism of any sort; it espouses an exclusive, materialist, and essentially atheistic philosophy. â€Å"Satan constitutes a worship of one's own ego†¦. In its major features, the Church of Satan takes a position of Extreme Machiavellianism and cynical-realism on the way to the nature of man†¦. Its major feature†¦ is its emphasis upon the significance of myth and magic and upon their collision in a world of people who can still be influenced through such beliefs and emotions. This Satanist then is the ultimate pragmatist†. (Truzzi 1974:220) Moody ( 1974) discusses the Church of Satan's redefinition of Christianity's seven fatal sins — greed, pride, envy, anger, greed, lust, and sloth — as virtues within satanic religion. Melton (1988:145) describes satanic churches' relationship to Christianity: Satanism is rationally subsequent to Christianity and draws on it in representing an overthrow of the Christian deity approving of his adversary. It stands in polemical relation to Christianity and†¦ Uses Christian elements, which are changed and given new meaning. Although LaVey's Church of Satan is the most observable satanic church, others exist. The Temple of Set, a small off-shoot group planned by Michael Aquino, a former disciple of LaVey, has attracted attention (Melton 1989:805; Lyons 1988:125). The small size of these organized satanic groups is less significant than the cultural meaning attached to them. As a radical rejection of Christian culture, they are representatively significant. Their very presence has put in to the concern about Satanism in America. Satan stories were connected to practical and political issues. As Russell (1977: 222) properly maintains, the figure of Satan in the New Testament is understandable only while it is seen as the counterpart or counter principle of Christ; accordingly, Russell adds, â€Å"the New Testament teaches that the Kingdom of God is at war with the Kingdom of the Devil†. Furthermore, Pagels documents, the vision of enormous struggle were developed by sectarian groups like the Essenes as they struggled against the forces they saw ranged against them. The dualistic cosmology was traited as split society, where sons of light, allied with the angels, and sons of darkness, in league with the control of evil, were in violent conflict. Pagels further retains that followers of Jesus adopted the same prototype in their campaigns. According to Pagels, Mark tells the story of Jesus as the disagreement between God's spirit and the power of Satan. Mark underlines that Jesus encountered this opposition not simply from evil spirit but from evil people as well. Mark's Satan is not an antagonistic power assailing Israel from outside the community but the source and symbol of conflict within the community (Pagels 1995: 12, 17, 34, 38; based on Mark 3: 23-27, 16: 5-7). Satan is described as the embodiment of pure evil. Such a Satanic theology would feature goodness to the Judeo-Christian God, but Satanists worship Satan as perceived to be more powerful or because the cultist might view himself or herself as being past redemption by a benign deity. In this system of thinking, goodness itself is typified as a weak, ineffective, and futile goal. Spence describes a similar dichotomy in views of Satanism and Luciferianism although he defines his terms slightly differently: Concerning the cults of Lucifer, much discrimination is required in dealing with this aspect, the bulk of the literature on the subject being manifestly imaginative and often willfully misleading. The members of the church of Lucifer are of two groups, those who regard the deity they adore as the evil principle, thus approximating to the standpoint of the Satanists, and those who look upon him as the true god in opposition to Adonai or Jehovah, whom they regard as an evil deity who has, with fiendish ingenuity, miscreated the world of man to the detriment of humanity. . (http://www. satanservice. org/propaganda/acad. 80sa. txt ) Though, in contemporary world, satanic symbols and themes are observable and popular features of music, literature, and movies. Increasing numbers of reported survivors are coming forward to assert they are victims of such cults. Are these reports just rumors or fantasies, or are people being harmed by ritual abuse? Unless we seriously consider these reports, we will never know for certain.